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Learn and Know IP Addresses, Subnetting,and VLSM

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IP Address

IP Address is the address assigned to the network and network equipment that uses the TCP/IP protocol. The IP address consists of 32 bits (biary digits or double numbers) binary numbers which are divided into 4 ockets (bytes) consisting of 8 bits. Each bit represents a decimal number ranging from 0 to 255.

The types of IP addresses consist of:

  1. Public IP

Highest public bit range address bit network address
class A 0 0 – 127* 8
class B 10 128 – 191 16
class C 110 192 – 223 24
class D 1110 224 – 239 28

  1. Private

This Private IP can be used freely but is not recognized on the global internet network. Because it is usually used on closed networks that are not connected to the internet, such as ATM computer networks.

10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255

Conclusion
1.0.0.0 – 126.0.0.0 : Class A.
127.0.0.0 : Loopback network.
128.0.0.0 – 191.255.0.0 : Class B.
192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.0 : Class C.
224.0.0.0 = 240.0.0.0 : Class E, reserved.
3. IPv6
consists of 16 octets, for example:
A524:72D3:2C80:DD02:0029:EC7A:002B:EA73

 

Subnetting

A Network Administrator often requires network sharing from an IP Address that has been assigned by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). This is because the supply of IP addresses is currently very limited due to the proliferation of sites on the internet. The way to divide the network is called subneting and the result of subneting is called subnetwork. The steps for subnetting are as follows:

Example 2:
A company gets an IP address from an ISP 160.100.0.0/16, the company has 30 departments in total, and wants all departments to have access to the internet. Determine the network for each department?

Solution ;
1. Determine which class the IP is in? B
2. How many networks are needed?
with the formula 2n > network needed
25 > 30
3. Convert to binary

network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000000 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000

  1. Take the host-portion bit according to the network needs, so that

network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 _ _ _ _ _ 000 00000000
11111111 11111111 1 1 1 1 1 000 00000000

note the third octet
_ _ _ _ _ 000
1 1 1 1 1 000

Method 1

By combining bits

00001 000 = 8
00010 000 = 16
00011 000 = 24
00100 000 = 32
00101 000 = 40
00110 000 = 48
……………
11111 000 = 248

Method 2
Reduce the subnet mask by 256

11111 000 = 248

256 – 248 = 8 then the subnetwork is a multiple of 8

No. Department of Subnetwork (255.255.248.0)
1 First 160.100.8.0
2 Second 160.100.16.0
3 Third 160.100.24.0
4 Fourth 160.100.32.0
5 Fifth 160.100.40.0
6 Sixth 160.100.48.0
7 Seventh 160.100.56.0
.. ………….
30 Thirty 160.100.248.0
Then

Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.8.0 160.100.15.255 160.100.8.1 – 160.100.15.254
160.100.16.0 160.100.23.255 160.100.16.1 – 160.100.23.254
160.100.24.0 160.100.31.255 160.100.24.1 – 160.100.31.254
160.100.32.0 160.100.39.255 160.100.31.254 160.100.32.0 160.100.39.255 160.100.32.1 – 160.100.39.254
160.100.40.0 160.100.47.255 160.100.40.1 – 160.100.47.254
160.100.48.0 160.100.55.255 160.100.48.1 – 160.100.55.254
160.100.56.0 160.100.63.255 160.100.56.1 – 160.100.63.254
160.100.64.0 160 100 .71.255 160.100.64.1 – 160.100.71.254
160.100.72.0 160.100.79.255 160.100.72.1 – 160.100.79.254
…… .. ………. ………….

160.100.248.0 160.100.255.255 160.100.248.1 – 160.100.255.254

VLSM (Variable Leg Subnet Mask)

The concept of subneting is indeed a solution in overcoming the number of IP addresses used. However, if you pay attention, there will be many subnets. More detailed explanation in the example:

Example 2:
A company that has 6 departments wants to divide its network, including:
1. Department A = 100 hosts
2. Department B = 57 hosts
3. Department C = 325 hosts
4. Department D = 9 hosts
5. Department E = 500 hosts
6. Department F = 25 hosts

IP Address given from ISP is 160.100.0.0/16

If we use ordinary subneting it will be easy to get but the results of subneting (such as example 1) will be wasted because the results of subneting are too many than the required number of hosts. Then we need VLSM calculations, namely:

  1. Sort by required hosts
    1. Department E = 500 hosts
    2. Department C = 325 hosts
    3. Department A = 100 hosts
    4. Department B = 57 hosts
    5. Department F = 25 hosts
    6. Department D = 9 hosts
  2. Convert to binary

network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000000 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
If the subneting is taken from the network then the VLSM is taken from the host

l For 500 hosts
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000000 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000

For 500 hosts, 9 bits are taken from the host-portion because
2n-2 > number of hosts

The result is 160.100.0.0/23

Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.0.0/23 160.100.0.255 160.100.0.1 – 160.100.1.254
160.100.2.0/23 160.100.2.255 160.100.2.1 – 160.100.3.254
160.100.4.0/23 160.100.4.255 160.100.4.1 – 160.100.5.254
160.100.6.0/23 160.100.6.255 160.100.6.1 – 160.100.7.254
160.100.8.0/23 160.100.8.255 160.100.8.1 – 160.100.9.254
…….. ………. ………….
160.100.254.0/23 160.100.254.255 160.100.254.1 – 160.100.255.254

l For 325 hosts we can still use a subnet of 500 hosts because it is still in arena 29 and choose an unused subnet.
l For 100 hosts use 28 > 100 and take one of the previously unused subnets.
e.g. 160.100.2.0/24

network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000010 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000010 00000000

then
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.2.0/24 160.100.2.255 160.100.2.1 – 160.100.2.254
160.100.3.0/24 160.100.3.255 160.100.3.1 – 160.100.3.254

l For 57 hosts use 26 >57 and take one of the previously unused subnets.
e.g. 160.100.3.0/24

network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000010 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000011 00000000

then
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.3.0/26 160.100.3.91 160.100.3.1 – 160.100.3.90
160.100.3.64/26 160.100.3.63 160.100.3.65 – 160.100.3.126
160.100.3.128/26 160.100.3.127 160.100.3.129 – 160 100. 3.190
160.100.3.192/26 160.100.3.191 160.100.3.193 – 160.100.3.254

l For 25 hosts use 25 > 25 and take one of the previously unused subnets.
e.g. 160.100.3.192/25

network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000010 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000011 00000000
then

Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.3.192/27 160.100.3.223 160.100.3.193 – 160.100.3.222
160.100.3.224/27 160.100.3.255 160.100.3.225 – 160.100.3.254

l For 9 hosts use 24 > 16 and take one of the previously unused subnets.
e.g. 160.100.3.224/25

network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000010 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000011 00000000

then
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.3.224/28 160.100.3.239 160.100.3.225 – 160.100.3.227
160.100.3.240/28 160.100.3.255 160.100.3.241 – 160.100.3.254

 

SUBNETTING ON IP ADDRESS CLASS B

First, the subnet mask that can be used for subnetting class B is as below. I deliberately separated it into two, the left and right blocks because each has a different technique, especially for the octet that is “played” based on the subnet block. The CIDR /17 to /24 method is exactly the same as the Class C subnetting, only the subnet blocks are inserted directly into the third octet, not like Class C is “played” in the fourth octet. While the CIDR /25 to /30 (multiple) of the subnet block we “play” in the fourth octet, but after the third octet is finished, we move forward (coeunter) from 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on.

Now let’s try two questions for both subnetting techniques for Class B. We start from using a subnetmask with a CIDR of /17 to /24. Example network address 172.16.0.0/18.

Analysis: 172.16.0.0 means class B, with Subnet Mask /18 means 11111111.11111111.110000000000000 (255.255.192.0).

Calculation:

  • Number of Subnets = 2x, where x is the number of binaries 1 in the last 2 octets. So the number of subnets is 22 = 4 subnets
  • Number of Hosts per Subnet = 2y – 2, where y is the reciprocal of x i.e. the number of 0 binaries in the last 2 octets. So the number of hosts per subnet is 214 – 2 = 16,382 hosts
  • Block Subnet = 256 – 192 = 64. The next subnets are 64 + 64 = 128, and 128+64=192. So the complete subnets are 0, 64, 128, 192.
  • Valid host and broadcast addresses?

Next we try another one for Class B, especially for those using the CIDR /25 to /30 subnetmask. Example network address 172.16.0.0/25.

Analysis: 172.16.0.0 means class B, with Subnet Mask /25 means 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 (255.255.255.128).

Calculation:

  • Number of Subnets = 29 = 512 subnets
  • Number of Hosts per Subnet = 27 – 2 = 126 hosts
  • Subnet block = 256 – 128 = 128. So the complete is (0, 128)
  • Valid host and broadcast addresses?

SUBNETTING ON IP ADDRESS CLASS A

If it is solid and understands correctly, we will continue to Class A. The concepts are all the same. The difference is in which OCTET we play the subnet blocks. If Class C is in the 4th (last) octet, class B is in the 3rd and 4th octet (last 2 octet), if Class A is in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th octet (last 3 octet). Then the subnet masks that can be used for subnetting class A are all subnet masks from CIDR /8 to /30.

We try to practice for the network address 10.0.0.0/16.

Analysis: 10.0.0.0 means class A, with Subnet Mask /16 means 111111111.11111111.000000000000000 (255.255.0.0).

Calculation:

  • Number of Subnets = 28 = 256 subnets
  • Number of Hosts per Subnet = 216 – 2 = 65534 hosts
  • Block Subnet = 256 – 255 = 1. So the complete subnet is: 0.1,2,3,4, and so on.
  • Valid host and broadcast addresses?

Note: All subnet calculations above assume that IP Subnet-Zeroes (and IP Subnet-Ones) are calculated by default. Todd Lamle’s latest version of the book as well as CCNA after 2005 have accommodated this IP Subnet-Zeroes (and IP Subnet-Ones) problem. CCNA pre-2005 does not include it by default (though in fact we can activate it with the command ip subnet-zeroes), so maybe in some books about CCNA and CNAP test questions, you still find the formula for calculating the number of subnets = 2x – 2

 

IP Address

IP Address is the address assigned to the network and network equipment that uses the TCP / IP protocol. IP addresses consist of 32 bit binary numbers which can be written as four decimal places separated by periods such as 192.16.10.01 or for example in wxyz format. IP addresses are the most widely used protocols for forwarding (routing) information on the network.

IP addresses have classes as in table 2.4.

Table 2.4. IP address
classes Class Range Network ID Host ID Default Subnet Mask
A 1-126 w xyz 255.0.0.0
B 128-191 wx yz 255.255.0.0
C 192-223 wxy z 255.255.255.0

note: there is still class D that is rarely used, and there is IPV6 that will be used if this IPV4 is not sufficient.

For example, there is an IP 192.168.0.100, so it includes a Class C IP Address

Subnetting

If an owner of a class B IP address, for example, requires more than one network ID, he must apply to Internic to get a new IP address. However, the supply of IP addresses is very limited due to the proliferation of sites on the internet.

To overcome this, a technique emerged to multiply the network ID from an existing network. This is called subnetting, in which a portion of the host ID is sacrificed for use in creating additional network IDs.

For example, in class B, the network ID is 130.200.0.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0 where the third octet is enclosed by 224. It can be calculated using the formula 256-224=32. then the subnet groups that can be used are multiples of 32, 64, 128, 160, and 192. Thus, the IP address groups that can be used are:

130.200.32.1 to 130.200.63.254
130.200.64.1 to 130.200.95.254
130.200.96.1 to 130.200.127.254
130.200.128.1 to 130.200.159.254
130.200.160.1 to 130.200.191.254
130.200.192.1 to 130.200.223.254

Or it will be easier with a good formulation in determining the subnet and the number of hosts per subnet. The number of subnets = 2n-2, n = the number of hidden bits

Number of hosts per subnet = 2N-2, N = number of bits not hidden

For example, suppose a subnet has a network address of 193.20.32.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.224. So: The
number of subnets is 6, because from the network address 193.20.32.0 by paying attention to the number from the first octet, which is 193, it can be seen that it is in class C. By observing the subnetmask 255.255.255.224 or 11111111.11111111.1111111. 11100000 can be seen that the three bits of the host ID are shrouded, so we get n = 3 and get: number of subnets = 23-2 = 6.

As for the number of hosts per subnet is 30, this is obtained from 5 bits that are not hidden, then N = 5 and will be obtained: the number of hosts per subnet = 25-2 = 30.

The hidden bit is the bit that is represented by the number 1, while the bit that is not hidden is the bit that is represented by the number 0.

 

 

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Different Types, One Purpose: The Art of Producing Grinding Discs

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Introduction

For metal fabrication, construction, and manufacturing, no tool is so essential as the grinding disc (UDO ผู้จัดจำหน่ายใบเจียร). Cutting, grinding, deburring, and polishing is done with these abrasive tools that prepare metal surfaces for smooth finishes and precise shaping. Not all grinding discs are created equal, though. There are quite a few different types, and each is designed for a different purpose. Knowing how they are produced and what makes them different will allow businesses and professionals to select the one that suits the purpose.

The Heart of Grinding Disc Manufacturing

The production of a grinding disc is part of science and part craftsmanship. Thanks to all of the high-grade abrasives, bonding agents, and reinforcements used by manufacturers, discs can be both efficient and hardy. The key steps most commonly involved in the production process are:

  • Abrasive Material: An abrasive material selection is critical to the performance of the disc. Other common abrasives include aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, zirconia alumina, and ceramics.
  • Bonding Process: The abrasives are blended with bonding materials like resinoid, vitrified, or metal bonds to bind them together amid grinding operations.
  • Shaping and Curing: The combined mixture is formed with a machine in disc form then cured in high-temperature (usually in multiple steps) to gain strength and endurance.
  • Reinforcement and Coating: To avoid breaking at high speeds, countless grinding discs are reinforced with fiberglass mesh layers, plus coated for superior protection.
  • Quality Testing: Disc grinding products fuse with accreditation and thorough testing to ensure compliance with rigorous market use standards before entering into the sector.

Different Types of Grinding Discs and Their Uses

Due to the wide range of grinding activities across industries, manufacturers have diversified their grinding disc production based on various needs. Here are a few of the most commonly used:

  1. Cutting Discs

Cutting discs (cutting wheels), thin discs that cut through metal, stainless steel, and similar materials. These discs allow rapid and accurate cutting, but must be handled with care to prevent breakage.

  1. Grinding Wheels

Cutting discs are fairly thinner than the grinding wheels. They are mainly used in material removal, surface grinding and shaping of metal components. They are strong enough to be used in industrial applications.

  1. Flap Discs

Flap discs are a combination grinding and finishing tool. They feature some overlapping abrasive flaps, which wear down slowly, leading to a more effective material removal and a smooth finish. These discs are great for polishing metal and surface blending.

  1. Fiber Discs

Fiber disc are resin-bonded abrasive discs designed for aggressive grinding and stock removal. Buffer pads: most commonly used to make high-frequency pads stable, they are usually used together with backing pads to provide support for small- and medium-sized wheels, and are used in large quantities for high-performance applications.

  1. Diamond Grinding Discs

Diamond grinding discs are the best option when dealing with hard materials, such as concrete, ceramics, and stone. Their edges are infused with diamond, which makes for great cutting efficiency and longevity.

The Proper Grinding Disc for the Job

Whether working by hand or with power tools, choosing the right grinding disc is essential for getting the job done while keeping safe. Take into account the following:

  • Material Type: You will want to have your abrasives work well with your material. For instance, zirconia alumina works best on stainless steel, as aluminum oxide is best for general metal grinding.
  • Disc Thickness: Thicker discs are more durable for heavy-duty work while thinner discs cut precisely.
  • Grit Size : Coarse grits (lower numbers) cut aggressively to remove material, while fine grits (higher numbers) are better for polishing and finishing.
  • Bond Type: Resin-bonded discs are flexible and ideal for applications where precision and finish quality is essential, while vitrified bonds offer longevity and durability.

Conclusion

A grinding disc (UDO ผู้จัดจำหน่ายใบเจียร) is produced through a careful process that ensures high operating performance and durability. Disk based on the required task and material to perform effectively, this is how the selection of the correct one ensures efficiency & avails through the grinder’s application. Grinders are designed to accomplish the same task — to smooth out metal work — whether it is cutting, shaping or polishing. Users can choose wisely and produce great outcomes in their respective projects by understanding the differences and functionalities of various repositories.

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WorkTime: Effective Time Tracking for Remote and Hybrid Teams

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The transition to remote work has dramatically transformed the workplace, with 86% of employees preferring telecommuting. This evolution has emphasized the need for reliable tools to monitor productivity, track attendance, and maintain team accountability in distributed work environments.

To address these challenges, businesses are increasingly adopting advanced workforce management solutions. Selecting the right time tracking software for employee management is crucial for improving operational efficiency, fostering collaboration, and ensuring sustained productivity in remote and hybrid settings.

WorkTime tracking software is a trusted solution designed to simplify workforce management. With over two decades of proven expertise, WorkTime offers the tools businesses need to optimize operations and enhance team performance.

The Necessity of Remote Work Tools

Managing remote teams brings unique challenges, including maintaining productivity, ensuring engagement, and tracking employee performance. WorkTime provides tailored solutions that address these needs, enabling businesses to operate efficiently and meet organizational goals.

Top Features of WorkTime

Precise Time Logging:

WorkTime allows employees to record their hours accurately, ensuring payroll accuracy and offering insights into how time is allocated to tasks and projects.

Real-Time Productivity Monitoring:

WorkTime enhances software employee time tracking with real-time insights into productivity. Managers can monitor task progress, identify challenges, and make data-driven decisions to improve team performance.

Intuitive User Design:

WorkTime’s simple and user-friendly interface ensures seamless navigation for both managers and employees, boosting system adoption and operational efficiency.

New Hire Evaluation:
WorkTime provides tools to assess the productivity and engagement of new employees, offering valuable data to enhance onboarding and strengthen team integration.

Cost-Effective Operations:
By streamlining workflows and maximizing team efficiency, WorkTime reduces operational expenses while delivering measurable productivity gains.

Customizable Reports:
Managers can generate detailed performance reports using WorkTime, gaining insights into team productivity, project progress, and resource allocation to inform strategic decisions.

Strategic Resource Management:
WorkTime aligns employee skills with the right tasks, ensuring efficient use of resources and driving successful project outcomes.

Advanced Data Security:

WorkTime employs robust security protocols to protect sensitive information, ensuring compliance with industry standards and safeguarding data privacy.

Seamless System Integration:

WorkTime integrates effortlessly into existing workflows, enabling businesses to enhance productivity, improve collaboration, and streamline operations without disruption.

Reliable Customer Support:
WorkTime offers responsive customer support through live chat, ensuring users receive timely assistance. Client testimonials consistently emphasize its reliability and effectiveness.

Conclusion: WorkTime as a Strategic Partner

For over 20 years, WorkTime has served industries such as IT, healthcare, education, finance, and non-profits. Its extensive features help businesses address the complexities of remote and hybrid work, offering precise time tracking, real-time productivity monitoring, and secure workforce management. WorkTime is a trusted partner for organizations seeking to optimize their operations and achieve success in today’s competitive market.

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5 Ways a Business Products Distributor Boosts Your Bottom Line

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Running a business is as much about managing expenses as it is about generating revenue. Finding ways to cut costs, streamline operations, and improve efficiency can make a huge difference to your bottom line. That’s where a business products distributor comes in. More than just a supplier, a great distributor becomes a partner in helping your business succeed. Here are five ways they make an impact.

  1. Customized Pricing That Works for You

A good distributor understands every business is different. Instead of a one-size-fits-all approach, they offer customized pricing plans based on your specific needs and volume. Whether you’re stocking up on office supplies or sourcing specialty items for your operations, tailored pricing ensures you get the best value without unnecessary overhead.

  2. Streamlining the Supply Chain

Managing multiple vendors is time-consuming and expensive. Business products distributors simplify this by becoming your single source for a wide range of products. From office essentials like paper and toner to cleaning supplies and breakroom necessities, they have everything you need in one place. This consolidation saves time, reduces administrative headaches, and often lowers shipping costs.

  3. Keeping You Stocked with What You Actually Need

Running out of essential supplies can disrupt operations and cost you money. A distributor helps avoid this by offering inventory management solutions, such as auto-replenishment or scheduled deliveries. This ensures you always have what you need—no more last-minute runs to the store or overordering products that sit unused on shelves.

   4. Offering Expert Advice and Solutions

A knowledgeable distributor doesn’t just sell products; they help you make smarter decisions. Whether it’s suggesting eco-friendly options that save money long-term or introducing new tools that improve efficiency, their expertise can lead to meaningful cost savings. Need ergonomic office furniture to reduce employee downtime or smarter storage solutions for your warehouse? They’ve got ideas—and the products to back them up.

  5. Helping You Scale Effortlessly

As your business grows, so do your needs. Distributors help you scale by offering flexible solutions that adapt to yourchanging demands. Whether you’re opening a new location, expanding your team, or adding new services, they ensure you have the supplies and systems in place to keep things running smoothly.

A Partnership That Pays Off

Working with a business products distributor is about more than convenience—it’s about creating a partnership that supports your success. By saving you time, reducing costs, and providing tailored solutions, a great distributor helps boost your bottom line in ways you’ll see and feel across your business.

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