Business
Learn and Know IP Addresses, Subnetting,and VLSM
IP Address
IP Address is the address assigned to the network and network equipment that uses the TCP/IP protocol. The IP address consists of 32 bits (biary digits or double numbers) binary numbers which are divided into 4 ockets (bytes) consisting of 8 bits. Each bit represents a decimal number ranging from 0 to 255.
The types of IP addresses consist of:
- Public IP
Highest public bit range address bit network address
class A 0 0 – 127* 8
class B 10 128 – 191 16
class C 110 192 – 223 24
class D 1110 224 – 239 28
- Private
This Private IP can be used freely but is not recognized on the global internet network. Because it is usually used on closed networks that are not connected to the internet, such as ATM computer networks.
10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
Conclusion
1.0.0.0 – 126.0.0.0 : Class A.
127.0.0.0 : Loopback network.
128.0.0.0 – 191.255.0.0 : Class B.
192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.0 : Class C.
224.0.0.0 = 240.0.0.0 : Class E, reserved.
3. IPv6
consists of 16 octets, for example:
A524:72D3:2C80:DD02:0029:EC7A:002B:EA73
Subnetting
A Network Administrator often requires network sharing from an IP Address that has been assigned by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). This is because the supply of IP addresses is currently very limited due to the proliferation of sites on the internet. The way to divide the network is called subneting and the result of subneting is called subnetwork. The steps for subnetting are as follows:
Example 2:
A company gets an IP address from an ISP 160.100.0.0/16, the company has 30 departments in total, and wants all departments to have access to the internet. Determine the network for each department?
Solution ;
1. Determine which class the IP is in? B
2. How many networks are needed?
with the formula 2n > network needed
25 > 30
3. Convert to binary
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000000 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
- Take the host-portion bit according to the network needs, so that
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 _ _ _ _ _ 000 00000000
11111111 11111111 1 1 1 1 1 000 00000000
note the third octet
_ _ _ _ _ 000
1 1 1 1 1 000
Method 1
By combining bits
00001 000 = 8
00010 000 = 16
00011 000 = 24
00100 000 = 32
00101 000 = 40
00110 000 = 48
……………
11111 000 = 248
Method 2
Reduce the subnet mask by 256
11111 000 = 248
256 – 248 = 8 then the subnetwork is a multiple of 8
No. Department of Subnetwork (255.255.248.0)
1 First 160.100.8.0
2 Second 160.100.16.0
3 Third 160.100.24.0
4 Fourth 160.100.32.0
5 Fifth 160.100.40.0
6 Sixth 160.100.48.0
7 Seventh 160.100.56.0
.. ………….
30 Thirty 160.100.248.0
Then
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.8.0 160.100.15.255 160.100.8.1 – 160.100.15.254
160.100.16.0 160.100.23.255 160.100.16.1 – 160.100.23.254
160.100.24.0 160.100.31.255 160.100.24.1 – 160.100.31.254
160.100.32.0 160.100.39.255 160.100.31.254 160.100.32.0 160.100.39.255 160.100.32.1 – 160.100.39.254
160.100.40.0 160.100.47.255 160.100.40.1 – 160.100.47.254
160.100.48.0 160.100.55.255 160.100.48.1 – 160.100.55.254
160.100.56.0 160.100.63.255 160.100.56.1 – 160.100.63.254
160.100.64.0 160 100 .71.255 160.100.64.1 – 160.100.71.254
160.100.72.0 160.100.79.255 160.100.72.1 – 160.100.79.254
…… .. ………. ………….
160.100.248.0 160.100.255.255 160.100.248.1 – 160.100.255.254
VLSM (Variable Leg Subnet Mask)
The concept of subneting is indeed a solution in overcoming the number of IP addresses used. However, if you pay attention, there will be many subnets. More detailed explanation in the example:
Example 2:
A company that has 6 departments wants to divide its network, including:
1. Department A = 100 hosts
2. Department B = 57 hosts
3. Department C = 325 hosts
4. Department D = 9 hosts
5. Department E = 500 hosts
6. Department F = 25 hosts
IP Address given from ISP is 160.100.0.0/16
If we use ordinary subneting it will be easy to get but the results of subneting (such as example 1) will be wasted because the results of subneting are too many than the required number of hosts. Then we need VLSM calculations, namely:
- Sort by required hosts
1. Department E = 500 hosts
2. Department C = 325 hosts
3. Department A = 100 hosts
4. Department B = 57 hosts
5. Department F = 25 hosts
6. Department D = 9 hosts - Convert to binary
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000000 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
If the subneting is taken from the network then the VLSM is taken from the host
l For 500 hosts
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000000 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
For 500 hosts, 9 bits are taken from the host-portion because
2n-2 > number of hosts
The result is 160.100.0.0/23
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.0.0/23 160.100.0.255 160.100.0.1 – 160.100.1.254
160.100.2.0/23 160.100.2.255 160.100.2.1 – 160.100.3.254
160.100.4.0/23 160.100.4.255 160.100.4.1 – 160.100.5.254
160.100.6.0/23 160.100.6.255 160.100.6.1 – 160.100.7.254
160.100.8.0/23 160.100.8.255 160.100.8.1 – 160.100.9.254
…….. ………. ………….
160.100.254.0/23 160.100.254.255 160.100.254.1 – 160.100.255.254
l For 325 hosts we can still use a subnet of 500 hosts because it is still in arena 29 and choose an unused subnet.
l For 100 hosts use 28 > 100 and take one of the previously unused subnets.
e.g. 160.100.2.0/24
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000010 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000010 00000000
then
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.2.0/24 160.100.2.255 160.100.2.1 – 160.100.2.254
160.100.3.0/24 160.100.3.255 160.100.3.1 – 160.100.3.254
l For 57 hosts use 26 >57 and take one of the previously unused subnets.
e.g. 160.100.3.0/24
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000010 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000011 00000000
then
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.3.0/26 160.100.3.91 160.100.3.1 – 160.100.3.90
160.100.3.64/26 160.100.3.63 160.100.3.65 – 160.100.3.126
160.100.3.128/26 160.100.3.127 160.100.3.129 – 160 100. 3.190
160.100.3.192/26 160.100.3.191 160.100.3.193 – 160.100.3.254
l For 25 hosts use 25 > 25 and take one of the previously unused subnets.
e.g. 160.100.3.192/25
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000010 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000011 00000000
then
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.3.192/27 160.100.3.223 160.100.3.193 – 160.100.3.222
160.100.3.224/27 160.100.3.255 160.100.3.225 – 160.100.3.254
l For 9 hosts use 24 > 16 and take one of the previously unused subnets.
e.g. 160.100.3.224/25
network-portion host-portion
10100000 01100100 00000010 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000011 00000000
then
Network Broadcast Range-Hoat
160.100.3.224/28 160.100.3.239 160.100.3.225 – 160.100.3.227
160.100.3.240/28 160.100.3.255 160.100.3.241 – 160.100.3.254
SUBNETTING ON IP ADDRESS CLASS B
First, the subnet mask that can be used for subnetting class B is as below. I deliberately separated it into two, the left and right blocks because each has a different technique, especially for the octet that is “played” based on the subnet block. The CIDR /17 to /24 method is exactly the same as the Class C subnetting, only the subnet blocks are inserted directly into the third octet, not like Class C is “played” in the fourth octet. While the CIDR /25 to /30 (multiple) of the subnet block we “play” in the fourth octet, but after the third octet is finished, we move forward (coeunter) from 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on.
Now let’s try two questions for both subnetting techniques for Class B. We start from using a subnetmask with a CIDR of /17 to /24. Example network address 172.16.0.0/18.
Analysis: 172.16.0.0 means class B, with Subnet Mask /18 means 11111111.11111111.110000000000000 (255.255.192.0).
Calculation:
- Number of Subnets = 2x, where x is the number of binaries 1 in the last 2 octets. So the number of subnets is 22 = 4 subnets
- Number of Hosts per Subnet = 2y – 2, where y is the reciprocal of x i.e. the number of 0 binaries in the last 2 octets. So the number of hosts per subnet is 214 – 2 = 16,382 hosts
- Block Subnet = 256 – 192 = 64. The next subnets are 64 + 64 = 128, and 128+64=192. So the complete subnets are 0, 64, 128, 192.
- Valid host and broadcast addresses?
Next we try another one for Class B, especially for those using the CIDR /25 to /30 subnetmask. Example network address 172.16.0.0/25.
Analysis: 172.16.0.0 means class B, with Subnet Mask /25 means 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 (255.255.255.128).
Calculation:
- Number of Subnets = 29 = 512 subnets
- Number of Hosts per Subnet = 27 – 2 = 126 hosts
- Subnet block = 256 – 128 = 128. So the complete is (0, 128)
- Valid host and broadcast addresses?
SUBNETTING ON IP ADDRESS CLASS A
If it is solid and understands correctly, we will continue to Class A. The concepts are all the same. The difference is in which OCTET we play the subnet blocks. If Class C is in the 4th (last) octet, class B is in the 3rd and 4th octet (last 2 octet), if Class A is in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th octet (last 3 octet). Then the subnet masks that can be used for subnetting class A are all subnet masks from CIDR /8 to /30.
We try to practice for the network address 10.0.0.0/16.
Analysis: 10.0.0.0 means class A, with Subnet Mask /16 means 111111111.11111111.000000000000000 (255.255.0.0).
Calculation:
- Number of Subnets = 28 = 256 subnets
- Number of Hosts per Subnet = 216 – 2 = 65534 hosts
- Block Subnet = 256 – 255 = 1. So the complete subnet is: 0.1,2,3,4, and so on.
- Valid host and broadcast addresses?
Note: All subnet calculations above assume that IP Subnet-Zeroes (and IP Subnet-Ones) are calculated by default. Todd Lamle’s latest version of the book as well as CCNA after 2005 have accommodated this IP Subnet-Zeroes (and IP Subnet-Ones) problem. CCNA pre-2005 does not include it by default (though in fact we can activate it with the command ip subnet-zeroes), so maybe in some books about CCNA and CNAP test questions, you still find the formula for calculating the number of subnets = 2x – 2
IP Address
IP Address is the address assigned to the network and network equipment that uses the TCP / IP protocol. IP addresses consist of 32 bit binary numbers which can be written as four decimal places separated by periods such as 192.16.10.01 or for example in wxyz format. IP addresses are the most widely used protocols for forwarding (routing) information on the network.
IP addresses have classes as in table 2.4.
Table 2.4. IP address
classes Class Range Network ID Host ID Default Subnet Mask
A 1-126 w xyz 255.0.0.0
B 128-191 wx yz 255.255.0.0
C 192-223 wxy z 255.255.255.0
note: there is still class D that is rarely used, and there is IPV6 that will be used if this IPV4 is not sufficient.
For example, there is an IP 192.168.0.100, so it includes a Class C IP Address
Subnetting
If an owner of a class B IP address, for example, requires more than one network ID, he must apply to Internic to get a new IP address. However, the supply of IP addresses is very limited due to the proliferation of sites on the internet.
To overcome this, a technique emerged to multiply the network ID from an existing network. This is called subnetting, in which a portion of the host ID is sacrificed for use in creating additional network IDs.
For example, in class B, the network ID is 130.200.0.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0 where the third octet is enclosed by 224. It can be calculated using the formula 256-224=32. then the subnet groups that can be used are multiples of 32, 64, 128, 160, and 192. Thus, the IP address groups that can be used are:
130.200.32.1 to 130.200.63.254
130.200.64.1 to 130.200.95.254
130.200.96.1 to 130.200.127.254
130.200.128.1 to 130.200.159.254
130.200.160.1 to 130.200.191.254
130.200.192.1 to 130.200.223.254
Or it will be easier with a good formulation in determining the subnet and the number of hosts per subnet. The number of subnets = 2n-2, n = the number of hidden bits
Number of hosts per subnet = 2N-2, N = number of bits not hidden
For example, suppose a subnet has a network address of 193.20.32.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.224. So: The
number of subnets is 6, because from the network address 193.20.32.0 by paying attention to the number from the first octet, which is 193, it can be seen that it is in class C. By observing the subnetmask 255.255.255.224 or 11111111.11111111.1111111. 11100000 can be seen that the three bits of the host ID are shrouded, so we get n = 3 and get: number of subnets = 23-2 = 6.
As for the number of hosts per subnet is 30, this is obtained from 5 bits that are not hidden, then N = 5 and will be obtained: the number of hosts per subnet = 25-2 = 30.
The hidden bit is the bit that is represented by the number 1, while the bit that is not hidden is the bit that is represented by the number 0.
Business
Comparing Metro Silver Markets and What Drives Their Daily Rates
Metro cities in India often set the tone for how the rest of the country perceives bullion trends, simply because of the sheer volume of trade that passes through their markets each day. Someone scrolling through financial updates in Maharashtra might pause to check the silver rate today in Pune before finalising a purchase for an upcoming celebration, while a buyer in Telangana could just as easily be searching for the silver rate today in Hyderabad to decide whether it is the right moment to invest in a few silver coins. These two cities, despite their distinct cultural identities and economic drivers, both function as important regional hubs where bullion trading, jewellery manufacturing, and everyday retail buying intersect in interesting ways.
Why Metro Markets Behave Differently From Smaller Towns
When it comes to the silver market, big cities usually offer a deeper and more complex range of options as compared to smaller towns. They are the meeting point of retail, wholesale, and even manufacturing, and therefore the rates set here are used as a reference by other markets. A jewellery store in a small suburb can set its morning rate according to the rates set by the city’s bullion association. It is not uncommon to see daily rates changing depending on the supply situation in metro cities, as large-scale wholesale and manufacturing deals can dictate the margins. jewellery store in a metro city has developed a culture of double-checking rates, and a big purchase is usually made considering the morning or afternoon quotation. There is quite a spread of rates on any given day, and this practice helps avoid losses from last-minute increases.
The Influence of Manufacturing Activities on the Local Retail Price
It is worth noting that metro regions are also home to dozens of jewellery manufacturers, both local and international. The buying trends of big-league manufacturers can influence the rates at a deeper level. When anticipating supply shortages, large-scale manufacturers buy silver bullion in advance to secure supplies, thus indirectly influencing the rates in retail chains. Metro regions are also more likely to be influenced by seasonal demand, as some manufacturers prepare ahead for major holidays (e.g., Christmas) or festive seasons (e.g., wedding season in India). Such tendencies first manifest in the manufacturing segment before trickling down to wholesale and retail levels.
The variety of available products in metro regions is another characteristic that differentiates them from smaller centres. The wider variety of goods means there is a greater variety of rates, which requires more thorough comparison. Someone purchasing silver for the first time may benefit from asking about the fineness of the metal and the making charges when comparing prices from different manufacturers.
Festive Seasons and Local Traditions
India is a country with numerous local holidays and traditions, each of which may have its own silver market characteristics. Depending on the region, local markets may see a surge in demand during Ganesh Chaturthi, the harvest festival, or the local new year. The same goes for weddings, which in many regions of India are celebrated on a large scale. Families buy silver gift sets weeks or months in advance, in part because of the popularity of the holiday and the need to plan accordingly. Corporate gift-giving is also a thing in major metro regions, where companies buy silver coin sets or other gifts for giveaways or employee rewards. Such a concentrated wave of demand is less common in smaller towns and is usually the reason why silver rates in metro regions can be higher than in other regions.
The Role of Informed and Tech-Savvy Buyers
A notable characteristic of the silver market in metro regions is the buyer’s behaviour. More often than not, an informed and thorough search for the best rate is made online, and buyers are more likely to compare several rates before making a final purchase. As a result, many dealers and manufacturers offer online quotations and update them constantly, since one wrong rate in the morning can cost them a sale in the afternoon. A similar tendency is noticeable among local jewellers, who are more likely to be forthcoming about the purity of the metal, which is important considering the prevalence of online research among metro buyers.
Key Considerations while Making a Purchase in the Metro Market
There are a few things to consider when buying silver in a major metro region. First of all, it is critical to compare rates from several sellers and, ideally, buy from the same seller who can offer the best value for the money. It is also important to understand how much you’re likely to pay in manufacturing charges – when the rate of the metal itself is low, but the making charges are high, this may be an unprofitable deal for the buyer. Finally, it is important to make sure that the dealer has an up-to-date certificate of fineness, which should be requested in writing if possible.
In Summary
When purchasing silver in metro regions, buyers are faced with greater complexity and opportunity for rates’ comparison, which ultimately makes them more competitive. A prudent buyer will always compare quotations and perform due diligence before buying, checking the fineness of the metal and researching online to ensure they get a fair deal. The same advice applies to sellers, who are more likely to develop a lasting relationship with the buyer if their rates and manufacturing charges are transparent.
Business
How Residential Eating Disorder Treatment Centers Promote Healthy Daily Routines
Healing from an eating disorder requires more than nutritional support; it involves creating a daily rhythm that encourages stability and replaces unhealthy habits with healthier ones. Consistent routines can help individuals regain a sense of control while providing opportunities to practice positive behaviors in a supportive setting.
Residential eating disorder treatment centers are designed to provide that structure. With professional guidance available throughout the day, residents follow schedules that encourage steady progress while addressing the emotional and psychological challenges that often accompany eating disorders. As healthy routines become familiar, they are more likely to continue after treatment ends.
In this blog post, we’ll explore how residential eating disorder treatment centers promote healthy daily routines. Read on!
Creating Predictable Mealtime Habits
One of the first priorities during residential treatment is helping individuals develop consistency around eating. Regularly scheduled meals and snacks encourage the body to reestablish natural hunger cues while reducing patterns of binge eating or other disordered behaviors.
Each meal is planned with the individual’s nutritional needs in mind, but the experience extends beyond simply eating. Dietitians and clinical staff, such as those from Center for Change, provide support throughout the process, helping residents challenge distorted beliefs about food and become more comfortable with balanced meals. Every successful meal becomes another step toward building trust in the recovery process.
As these routines are repeated day after day, mealtimes often become less overwhelming. Familiarity helps reduce anxiety, making it easier for residents to approach food with greater confidence instead of fear.
Building Structure Throughout the Day
Recovery benefits from having purpose beyond scheduled meals. Residential programs organize each day with planned activities that keep residents engaged while supporting their overall treatment goals. Therapy sessions, educational opportunities, personal reflection, and appropriate recreation are arranged to create a healthy balance without leaving long periods of unstructured time.
Following a consistent schedule helps replace routines that may have revolved around disordered eating. Instead of reacting to intrusive thoughts throughout the day, residents gradually learn how to move from one meaningful activity to the next with greater focus and intention.
This daily rhythm also reinforces healthy habits that can be carried into life after treatment. Establishing predictable routines often makes the transition back to work, school, or family responsibilities feel more manageable.
Developing Healthier Responses to Challenges
Emotional distress frequently plays a significant role in eating disorders, making it essential to address more than eating habits alone. Residential treatment provides a structured environment where individuals can identify the underlying causes of unhealthy behaviors and practice more constructive responses.
Individual counseling encourages deeper self-awareness, while group sessions provide opportunities to connect with others facing similar struggles. Residents also practice techniques that help them navigate stressful situations without relying on disordered eating as a coping mechanism.
These new responses become stronger through repetition. Over time, healthier choices begin to feel more natural because they are reinforced within everyday routines rather than practiced only during therapy sessions.
Supporting Restful Sleep and Daily Recovery
A consistent sleep schedule can make a meaningful difference during the recovery process. Poor sleep often affects concentration, emotional regulation, and physical healing, which makes it more difficult to fully participate in treatment.
Residential eating disorder treatment centers encourage healthy sleep habits by establishing regular bedtimes and wake-up times. Evening routines are often designed to promote relaxation, allowing residents to gradually prepare for restful sleep instead of ending the day with heightened stress.
Improved sleep supports progress made during treatment. Feeling well-rested can increase emotional resilience, improve focus during therapy, and make it easier to engage in the routines that encourage lasting recovery.
Recovery from an eating disorder is built through consistent choices made one day at a time. Residential eating disorder treatment centers provide an environment where healthy routines become part of everyday life, helping residents rebuild their relationship with food while strengthening the habits that support long-term wellness. As those routines become more familiar, individuals leave treatment with practical skills they can continue using as they move forward in their recovery journey.
Business
How ICOM Radios Improve Workplace Safety and Team Coordination
In fast-paced work environments, clear communication can make the difference between smooth operations and costly mistakes. Whether employees are working on construction sites, in manufacturing facilities, at security checkpoints, or during large-scale events, staying connected is essential for maintaining safety and productivity. While smartphones have become common communication tools, they often fall short in environments where reliability and instant connectivity are critical. This is where ICOM radios stand out.
Designed for professional use, ICOM radios provide dependable communication that helps organizations respond quickly to changing situations and strengthen collaboration among teams. Their robust performance makes them an essential tool for businesses that prioritize workplace safety and operational efficiency.
Enhancing Emergency Response
Emergencies require immediate action, and delays in communication can increase risks for both employees and operations. ICOM radios enable instant push-to-talk communication, allowing workers to report hazards, request assistance, coordinate emergency procedures, or relay important updates without waiting for phone calls to connect.
Because these radios operate on dedicated communication channels, teams can communicate even in areas with weak or unavailable cellular coverage. This reliable connection allows supervisors and employees to react faster to equipment failures or security incidents, helping minimize potential damage and protect everyone on site.
Strengthening Team Collaboration
Effective teamwork depends on timely and accurate communication. ICOM radios, such as those available at Chatt Radio, allow multiple team members to communicate simultaneously, ensuring that everyone receives important updates as they happen. This shared communication reduces misunderstandings and keeps projects moving efficiently.
From coordinating deliveries to directing field personnel and managing security operations, workers can instantly relay instructions and confirm completed tasks. The result is improved coordination and fewer communication gaps that could disrupt daily operations.
Reducing Workplace Risks
Many industries involve hazardous environments where workers must remain alert to changing conditions. ICOM radios support safer workplaces by allowing employees to immediately report unsafe situations, equipment malfunctions, environmental hazards, or medical emergencies before they escalate.
Features such as emergency alert buttons and worker safety functions available on select models provide an additional layer of protection. Supervisors can quickly identify situations requiring immediate attention and dispatch assistance without unnecessary delays. This proactive communication helps organizations reduce workplace incidents while ensuring compliance with safety protocols.
Improving Operational Efficiency
Beyond safety, reliable communication contributes directly to overall productivity. ICOM radios eliminate the need for repeated phone calls or physical travel between work areas, allowing employees to exchange information instantly while remaining focused on their responsibilities.
Fast communication enables managers to allocate resources efficiently, adjust schedules when unexpected issues arise, and coordinate multiple departments in real time. This streamlined workflow lessens downtime, improves task completion, and helps businesses maintain consistent operational performance.
Supporting Long-Term Reliability
Professional communication equipment must withstand demanding working conditions. ICOM radios are engineered with rugged construction that resists dust, moisture, vibration, and everyday wear, making them suitable for challenging industrial and outdoor environments.
Their long battery life also supports extended shifts without frequent charging, ensuring uninterrupted communication throughout the workday. Combined with dependable audio quality and durable design, these radios offer long-term value for organizations seeking communication tools they can rely on year after year.
Reliable communication is a critical component of workplace safety and effective team coordination. ICOM radios provide organizations with instant, dependable communication that supports faster emergency response, improves collaboration, minimizes workplace risks, and enhances overall operational efficiency. Their rugged design and consistent performance make them well-suited for demanding industries where uninterrupted communication is essential.
By investing in professional two-way radio solutions, businesses can create safer work environments while empowering employees to stay connected and respond confidently to everyday challenges. As workplace demands continue to evolve, ICOM radios remain a trusted communication tool that helps organizations protect their workforce and achieve greater operational success.
